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17 Online Summer Engineering Programs for High School Students

November 9, 2024

If you're a high school student interested in pursuing an engineering degree in college, enrolling in an online summer engineering program could be a good place to start! These programs will allow you to develop your skills, learn from experts, and work on real-world projects, all from the comfort of your home.

Whether you're interested in electrical, software, mechanical, civil, biomedical, chemical, aerospace, or environmental engineering, participating in a summer program can strengthen your college applications and help you get started in your chosen field.

Online engineering programs can supplement your education by introducing concepts that go beyond the standard school curriculum. Admission committees and future employers often value candidates who show a strong interest in the field and possess an advanced skillset for their age, making these programs a solid addition to your profile.

Here’s our curated list of 16 notable online summer engineering programs for high school students to consider!

 

Subject Areas: Environmental health and engineering, philosophy, psychology, biophysics, international relations, behavioral economics, chemistry, machine learning, data science, biotechnology, sociology, physics, neuroscience, political theory, history, network science, and more.

Location: Virtual

Cost: You can submit an interest form here to learn the exact cost.

Application Deadline: May 21, 2024, for the summer cohort and September 25, 2024, for the fall cohort.

Dates:

  • Summer seminar: June 24 – September 2, 2024
  • Fall seminar: October 23, 2024 – February 19, 2025
  • The dates for Horizon Labs are flexible; however, you must submit your application at least 4 weeks in advance.

Eligibility: High school students with a strong academic record (>3.67/4.0 GPA) are eligible to apply. Most accepted students are typically in 10th or 11th grade. Only a few tracks have formal prerequisites, and more details can be found here.

Horizon offers trimester-long research programs for high school students in various subject areas, including data science, machine learning, political theory, biomedical engineering, chemistry, neuroscience, psychology, and more. It is one of the few research programs for high school students that provides a choice between quantitative and qualitative research. If you are interested in engineering, you can select the Environmental Health and Engineering course, where you will investigate various sustainability issues related to agricultural production, urbanization, infrastructure, resource use, and current engineering innovations.

After choosing a specific subject track and type of research, you will be paired with a professor or Ph.D. scholar from a leading university who will mentor you throughout your research process. You will work on producing a 20-page, university-level research paper that you can submit to reputable journals for publication as a high school student.

This program provides a solid opportunity to engage in research in specialized fields under the guidance of an experienced scholar. Additionally, the program offers a letter of recommendation for each student and detailed project feedback that can aid in future projects and college applications. You can apply here!

 

Subject Areas: Technology, medicine, engineering, healthcare, AI, business, marketing, sustainability, environmental science, machine learning, journalism, computer science, media, and more.

Location: Virtual

Cost: Starts at $2,490; Financial aid is available.

Application Deadline: Deadlines vary depending on the cohort.

Dates: Programs lasting 8–16 weeks, with multiple cohorts, are available throughout the year, including in the spring, summer, fall, and winter sessions.

Eligibility: The program is open to high school students, undergraduates, and gap year students who can commit to working 5–15 hours per week for 8–16 weeks.

Ladder Internships, a selective program founded by Harvard alumni, connects high school students with startups and nonprofits worldwide for virtual internships. You can select the field you'd like to work in from a broad range of industries, including technology, machine learning, AI, computer science, engineering, environmental science, sustainability, business, marketing, healthcare, medicine, media, journalism, and more.

As an intern, you'll work on meaningful projects that support the overall mission of the startup or nonprofit and present your work at the end of the program. The internship includes personalized training in communication, time management, and other essential skills, as well as group training sessions with other interns. You will be matched with a manager at the startup and a Ladder coach, who will act as an additional mentor. You can review all the available options through their application form.

 

Subject Areas: Psychology, engineering, medicine, international relations, gender studies, data science, environmental science, entrepreneurship, business, computer science, biology, chemistry, physics, economics, and more.

Location: Virtual

Cost: Starts at $2,990. Financial aid is available!

Application Deadline: Deadlines vary based on the cohort. The primary summer deadlines are March 17, April 14, and May 12, with the final deadline for the summer cohort in June.

Dates: The summer cohort usually takes place from June to August. The program length varies from 12 weeks to 1 year.

Eligibility: High school students with an unweighted GPA of 3.3 on a 4.0 scale can apply.

The Lumiere Research Scholar Program is a research initiative aimed at high school students, offering customized research opportunities across various subjects. This program connects students with Ph.D. mentors who provide personalized guidance for conducting independent research projects.

During the program, you will collaborate with your research mentor and a writing coach to choose and develop your research topic. In addition to one-on-one sessions, you will participate in workshops that emphasize the research process. Over 12 weeks, you will focus on your chosen topic and ultimately produce an independent research paper. Available research areas include psychology, data science, economics, computer science, physics, engineering, international relations, chemistry, and more. Additional information regarding the application process can be found here.

 

Subject Areas: Biomedical engineering, computer engineering, civil engineering, and environmental engineering.

Location: Virtual (synchronous lectures)

Cost: The cost is $3,050; some courses may require the purchase of additional materials, such as course readers or textbooks (up to $100). Need-based financial aid is available.

Application Deadline: March 29 (tentatively)

Dates: 

  • Session 1: June 17 – June 28 (tentatively)
  • Session 2: July 8 – July 19 (tentatively)

Eligibility: Students in grades 8 – 10 are eligible to apply. Please note that some courses may have restrictions based on specific grade level ranges.

Stanford University’s Pre-College Summer Institutes offer a 2-week virtual program for high school students worldwide where you can select from 60 online summer courses across various disciplines, including computer science, math, creative writing, social justice, philosophy, engineering, and more. These courses are ungraded and do not provide academic credit, and you may only attend one course per summer.

In the “Introduction to Engineering” course, you will explore various fields of engineering, including biomedical engineering, computer engineering, civil engineering, and environmental engineering. Through team presentations, you will learn design principles and consider challenges and ethical issues. By the end of the course, you will have a better understanding of the engineering field and potential areas of study or career paths to pursue. This course is a solid opportunity for students interested in exploring engineering and the engineering design process.

Throughout the program, you will meet with instructors for two hours each day, Monday through Friday, for live online classes. In addition, you will engage in out-of-class learning assignments related to your chosen course. There will also be seminars, workshops, and activities available for you to participate in during your free time. After the program, you will receive a written evaluation and a certificate of completion. The program accepts only 16 students per class.

 

Subject Areas: Software engineering, data engineering, machine learning, AI, data science, social media content generation, and market research.

Location: The program is virtual, with additional opportunities available in the Greater Seattle area, WA.

Cost/Stipend: No cost; Some projects offer stipends.

Application Deadline: April 22 (tentatively); the applications for summer 2025 will be available in March or April 2025.

Dates: The duration varies based on the opportunity, typically ranging from May to August for approximately 8 to 12 weeks.

Eligibility: High school students who are U.S. citizens or permanent residents and live in the United States are eligible to apply.

The Spark Summer Mentorship Program provides hands-on, immersive internships for high school students. When applying to the program, you can choose between 1 to 5 projects that align with your interests. SparkSMP offers various remote projects where you can apply concepts from machine learning, artificial intelligence, and data visualization to real-world scenarios. In 2024, students had the opportunity to participate in the Advancing Accessibility in Engineering Education internship. This internship offered them the chance to explore how emerging AI technologies can be used to make engineering education more accessible for students who require additional support.

The program will allow you to engage with and learn from industry leaders, university professors, and mentors from various organizations. Research topics for 2024 include extreme weather conditions, software engineering, detecting tick-borne infections and cancers, ML workflow, quantum technologies, CHIPS/semiconductors (GaN/AIGaN), low-temperature electronics, competitive analysis, market research, data engineering and AI, social media content generation, and more. The program is highly selective, with an acceptance rate of around 3–5%.

 

Subject Areas: Engineering, space science, technology, ecology, outreach and communications, aeronautics, astronomy, space microbiology, and robotics.

Location: Depending on the project, interns may work either remotely or on-site at any of NASA's 10 field centers located across the country.

Cost/Stipend: There is no cost to participate; interns may receive a stipend that varies based on their academic level and the duration of the session.

Application Deadline:

  • Spring 2025: August 23, 2024
  • Summer 2025: February 28, 2025
  • Fall 2025: May 16, 2025

Dates: These internships are available in three sessions, with specific dates varying based on the opportunity:

  • Fall: 16-week program, from late August or early September to mid-December
  • Spring: 16-week program, from mid-January to early May
  • Summer: 10-week program, from late May or early June to August

Eligibility: Applicants must be U.S. citizens and have a cumulative GPA of at least 3.0 on a 4.0 scale. Additionally, they must be full-time students (from high school through graduate level) or part-time college students enrolled in a minimum of 6 semester hours, and they must be at least 16 years old at the time of application, with no exceptions.

NASA’s Office of STEM Engagement (OSTEM) provides paid internships for high school and college students where they receive training, mentorship, and career development while gaining exposure to leading professionals in fields such as science, engineering, finance, IT, and business. These internships cover a range of subjects and disciplines, including space science, engineering, aeronautics, astronomy, technology, space microbiology, robotics, ecology, and outreach and communications.

You will have the opportunity to design experiments, analyze mission data, and develop innovative technologies. You can expect to work closely with a researcher or in a small group on a current NASA project. Tasks may include recording and analyzing data, tracking celestial body movements using advanced telescopes and other astronomical equipment, and assisting with mission preparations. Additionally, you will have the chance to attend lectures from astronauts and other experts in various fields of astronomy. Through this experience, you will learn numerous skills that will help prepare you for undergraduate studies and your future career. You can explore available internship opportunities here by utilizing the ‘Filter’ option to view those open to high school students.

 

Subject Areas: Engineering, business, forensic science, data sciences, finance, biology, biochemistry, chemistry, computer science, health, geography, environmental science, mathematics, physics, astronomy, and more.

Location: Internships are offered in fully remote and hybrid formats. In-person opportunities are also available at George Mason University in Fairfax, VA.

Cost/Stipend: There is no cost to participate in the program, except for a $25 application fee, which may be waived based on financial need. However, transport and housing are not covered. The internship is unpaid.

Application Deadline: Applications for the 2025 ASSIP program will open on December 2, 2024, and close on February 2, 2025.

Dates: June 18 – August 8, 2025

Eligibility:

  • Interns for remote internships must be at least 15 years old by the program start date.
  • Interns for in-person or hybrid internships in computer labs must also be at least 15 years old by the program start date.
  • For in-person or hybrid wet-lab internships, interns must be at least 16 years old by the program start date.

The Aspiring Scientists Summer Internship Program provides high school students with the chance to collaborate directly with faculty researchers at George Mason University on developing their research projects. During the 8-week internship, you will gain hands-on experience with advanced technologies and equipment, develop your scientific writing and communication skills, explore STEM career paths through discussions and meetings with industry professionals, and learn to apply creative problem-solving, which is a critical component of innovative research.

For students with an interest in engineering, research areas include bioengineering, civil engineering, software engineering, micro-/nano-manufacturing, cybersecurity engineering, electrical engineering, and more. Previous engineering projects have focused on topics such as Adapting Large Language Models to Aid End-Users in Bug Reporting, Correcting Visual Design Errors in Presentation Slides, and Automated Inputting of Grades into Online Gradebook Using Optical Character Recognition. You can explore past research projects from the College of Engineering and Computing here.

 

Subject Areas: Electronic engineering, AI, machine learning, game development, coding, quantum computation, hardware development, and more.

Location: The program is available virtually or in person at MIT in Cambridge, MA.

Cost: The cost is $1,750 for families with an income exceeding $150,000, while accepted participants from families earning less will have no charge.

Application Deadline: March 31 (tentatively)

Dates: July 8 – August 4 (tentatively)

Eligibility: High school students in grades 9–11 who attend school in the U.S. are eligible to apply. Most accepted students are typically in the 11th grade.

The MIT Beaver Works Summer Institute (BWSI) offers hands-on STEM courses in a workshop format, covering a range of topics. Among the online engineering courses available are Basics of ASICs, Microelectronics and Hardware Development, and Quantum Software.

  • In the "Basics of ASICs" course, you will gain hands-on experience in designing and arranging semiconductors on a nanometer scale to perform specific functions.
  • The "Microelectronics and Hardware Development" course provides an overview of how microchips, PCBs, and hardware systems are created and their role in the modern world. You will also get practical experience designing and implementing hardware systems using microcontrollers, with the opportunity to develop electronics that could have real-world applications.
  • In the "Quantum Software" course, you will learn foundational concepts of quantum computation through coding exercises. You will also work on developing and testing a quantum algorithm as a software program.

The BWSI offers a solid opportunity to improve your programming skills, learn from MIT Lincoln Laboratory professors, researchers, and students, and collaborate with peers. You can check out the current course offerings here.

 

Subject Areas: Biochemical engineering, synthetic biology, genetic and metabolic engineering.

Location: Live synchronous sessions will be held through web conferencing, requiring real-time attendance.

Cost: $3,900 (4 credits) + $75 application fee. Financial aid is available.

Application Deadline:

  • Early application deadline: January 8, 2025
  • Regular application deadline: February 12, 2025
  • Late application deadline: April 9, 2025, unless course waitlists fill up earlier.

Dates: June 21 – August 9, 2025

Eligibility: High school students aged 16–19 with a biology and chemistry background who will graduate in 2025, 2026, or 2027 can apply.

Harvard Summer School’s Secondary School Program (SSP) is a 4- or 7-week academic program that allows high school students to enroll in college-level courses for credit. You can select from over 200 courses available across various disciplines. During the 7-week online course, you will join live online classes through web conferencing, or access recorded lectures asynchronously. Recorded sessions are generally available within a few hours of class and no later than the next business day.

In the Biochemical Engineering and Synthetic Life course, you’ll learn the fundamentals of biochemical engineering, including biological principles, the flow of genetic information in biological systems, the building blocks of living cells, and cellular pathways and control mechanisms. The course also covers emerging fields like synthetic biology, which allows engineers to design entirely new cells. Throughout the course, you’ll explore genetic and metabolic engineering, applying these concepts to real-world challenges in specialty chemicals, nutrition, global health, environmental remediation, and sustainability. Additionally, you'll gain insight into the science behind producing designer molecules such as pharmaceuticals, plastics, and biofuels. Only 40 students are admitted to this course.

 

Subject Areas: Math, AI, machine learning, deep learning, engineering, data science, medicine, economics, linguistics, and digital humanities.

Location: Virtual via Zoom

Cost: $1,975. Limited need-based scholarships are available.

Application Deadline: June 5 (tentatively); Applications for the 2025 camp will open in October 2024.

Dates: June 17 – July 26 (tentatively)

Eligibility: Students in grades 8–12 are eligible to apply.

The MehtA+ AI/Machine Learning Research Bootcamp is a virtual six-week program conducted by engineers from MIT and Stanford that introduces high school students to both basic and advanced concepts in data science. Throughout the program, you will explore the mathematics underlying various AI, machine learning, and deep learning models. Additionally, you will learn different data processing techniques and how to train complex AI models.

For your midterm and final projects, you will collaborate in groups of three to four, engaging in machine learning research either independently or in partnership with a university, focusing on topics such as economics, digital humanities, medicine, and linguistics. Upon completing your project, you will write and publish your research papers online and present a research poster to university professors at the annual MehtA+ Machine Learning conference. The curriculum covers a range of subjects, including Python programming, machine learning libraries, ethical considerations, and research methodologies. Past projects have included the application of feature engineering for automated valuation models. You can view the previous projects from this camp here.

 

Subject Areas: Biology, engineering, linguistics, philosophy, computer science, technology, and design.

Location: Virtual

Cost/Stipend: There is no cost to participate; however, this is an unpaid internship. In some cases, need-based financial assistance may be available.
Application Deadline: Applications usually close in February; TBA for 2025

Dates: June 17 – August 9 (tentatively)
Eligibility: High school juniors and seniors who are at least 14 years old, as well as community college students under the age of 21, are eligible to apply.

Stanford’s Science, Humanities, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (SHTEM) Summer Internship offers high school and community college students the opportunity to work in project groups, allowing for collaboration and teamwork on research projects. During the program, each group will be mentored by students, faculty, and staff from the Stanford Compression Forum. Most of the research will be conducted remotely, with regular communication maintained between you, your mentors, and group members. You can expect to work approximately 30–40 hours per week.

The program highlights the diverse range of research topics in engineering, emphasizing the integration of the humanities and the human element in STEM research. You’ll have the chance to engage in interdisciplinary projects across fields such as biology, computer science, philosophy, design, technology, engineering, and linguistics. At the end of the program, each group will give presentations on their projects and findings. Through this internship, you'll develop technical skills and a success-driven mindset. Typically, around 60 students are accepted into the program.

 

Subject Areas: Planetary science, mathematics, biology, engineering, chemistry, data analysis, computer science, physics, information technology, and cybersecurity.

Location: Virtual or in-person at Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD

Cost/Stipend: The program is free for all accepted participants, but it is an unpaid opportunity.

Application Deadline: February 15, 2024; TBA for 2025

Dates:

  • Summer session: June 25 – August 22 (tentatively)
  • Academic year session: September 16, 2024 – May 2025; the exact dates are TBA.

Eligibility: High school juniors and seniors who are at least 15 years old and have a minimum GPA of 2.8 are eligible to apply. The applicants must also be permanent residents of the Washington-Baltimore metropolitan region.

The ASPIRE program by Johns Hopkins University’s Applied Physics Laboratory provides high school juniors and seniors the opportunity to explore STEM careers before selecting a college major. During the program, you will be paired with lab staff to collaborate on projects, tackle challenges, and develop both technical and interpersonal skills. The program offers both in-person and virtual internships, with virtual experiences conducted entirely online, except for in-person onboarding, equipment returns, and troubleshooting.

While applying, you will choose your area of interest, but the program will assign your mentor and project. You can select your preferred subjects from a range of available areas, including biology, chemistry, computer science, engineering, information technology, cybersecurity, mathematics, data analysis, physics, and planetary science. Your main area of interest will guide which mentors review your application. If a mentor's project requires particular skills, your secondary area of interest may also be considered. With an acceptance rate of around 15%-20%, the program offers a solid opportunity for students to explore career paths and gain practical experience in different STEM fields.

 

Subject Areas: Biomedical engineering, engineering design, biology, physiology, math, data analysis, and replacement tissue designing.

Location: Online (asynchronous) through Canvas, Brown’s learning management system.

Cost: $4,282

Application Deadline: May 10 (tentatively)

Dates:

  • June 24 – July 12 (tentatively)
  • July 08 – July 26 (tentatively)

Eligibility: Students who are completing grades 9 to 12 and are aged 14–18 can apply. Those who have finished Algebra 1 and Trigonometry will be best prepared for this course. While having some basic knowledge of biology can be helpful, it is not a mandatory requirement.

Summer@Brown Online offers high school students the chance to explore over 80 courses that provide engaging learning experiences where they will get to experience college-level academics without the pressure of grades or credits. The program also includes workshops, activities, and events outside of class.

In the "Biomedical Engineering: The Smart Design of Medical Implants and Devices" course, you'll explore key aspects of biomedical engineering, such as tissue replacement materials, cell interactions, and mechanical properties. You'll also engage in discussions on the ethical considerations of biomedical designs and apply your knowledge to a design challenge focused on developing a new coronary artery bypass material. By the course's end, you'll have a solid understanding of the role of mechanical and material properties in tissue design, be able to apply biology and math principles to analyze engineered materials and gather data from experiments. Additionally, you'll design and prototype a biomedically-inspired tissue, gaining insight into both the field of biomedical engineering and the broader engineering design process.

 

Subject Areas: Biomedical engineering, designing experiments, and research.

Location: Online (asynchronous)

Cost:

  • Tuition: $3,575
  • Application fee: $50
  • Lab kit fee: $296.20

Application Deadline: Applications for the 2025 program will open in December 2024.

Dates: June 23 – August 1, 2025

Eligibility: Rising high school juniors, seniors, or recent high school graduates can apply. Talented ninth-graders may be considered; however, priority will be given to students in higher grades.

Johns Hopkins University’s Biomedical Engineering Innovation (BMEI) is a virtual three-credit course that will allow you to model biological systems, design experiments to test those models and apply engineering principles to address biological, physiological, and medical design challenges. As a participant, you will engage with a college-level curriculum that requires a commitment of 14–20 hours per week during the summer term. You will have the opportunity to design a biosensor and model both the human arm and the circulatory system. You will also develop an independent project, which could involve conducting a literature review, designing an experiment, or creating a prototype of a biomedical device, and presenting your results in the form of an online poster.

The course is primarily asynchronous, featuring pre-recorded lectures, optional live study sessions, and no scheduled class times. There are regular live study sessions held at least twice a week on MS Teams, which are optional and can be recorded for later access. Your independent project will involve at least three virtual design review meetings with your instructor, each lasting around 15 to 20 minutes. You will also use MS Teams to interact with classmates and ask questions.

 

Subject Areas: Biomedical engineering, clinical simulation, digital diagnostics, augmented reality, app development, and computer-aided design.

Location: Online

Cost: $1,995 + a $65 non-refundable application fee; scholarships and discounts are available.

Application Deadline: May 1 (tentatively)

Dates: July 8 – July 25 (tentatively)

Eligibility: High school students who are rising sophomores, juniors, or seniors are eligible to attend Summer College – Online. Students who have graduated high school in 2024 are also eligible if they are not matriculating into Syracuse University in the fall.

Syracuse University’s Summer College (Online) provides high school students the opportunity to explore potential majors and academic interests through college-level courses from home. In the “Biomedical Engineering: Unlocking the Secrets of the Human Machine” course, you will explore the fundamentals of biomedical engineering through interactive lectures and hands-on workshops. You will examine the human body's complexities and the engineering solutions designed to enhance and heal it. The course includes clinical simulations, an exploration of mobile healthcare and telemedicine, and a study of how apps, wearables, and augmented reality are transforming patient care. You will gain hands-on experience with medical equipment, and digital diagnostics, and learn about microcontrollers. Additionally, you will have the chance to learn app development, and computer-aided design, and create prototypes using a personal microprocessor kit.

While each course is distinct, if you enroll in a 3-week course, you will participate in virtual classes for part of each weekday. These live sessions involve interaction with classmates, professors, and occasionally teaching assistants (TAs) or instructional assistants (IAs). Classes may include lectures, guest presentations, discussions, in-class activities, breakout rooms, and group work. Outside of class, you will complete asynchronous assignments, which could consist of pre-recorded lectures, readings, and projects. Upon completion, you will receive a certificate of completion from Syracuse University and can choose to purchase a credit or noncredit transcript.

 

Subject Areas: Web development, mobile app development, machine learning, data science, UX design, UI design, programming, and graphic design.

Location: Virtual or in-person at multiple locations.

Cost: Free for all accepted participants

Application Deadline: Typically in late March; TBA for 2025

Dates: In 2024, multiple 2-week sessions were available between June and August; dates for 2025 are yet to be announced.

Eligibility: Girls and gender-expansive teens aged 13–18 with an interest in technology are eligible to apply. No prior coding experience is necessary.

Kode with Klossy offers free 2-week coding camps designed for students traditionally underrepresented in STEM fields. As a participant, you can choose one of four courses: Web Development, Mobile App Development, Machine Learning, or Data Science.

In the Web Development course, you will learn to build websites using JavaScript, HTML, and CSS, ensuring they are responsive and user-friendly. The Mobile App course will teach you to create fully functional iOS apps using Xcode and Swift. If you select the Machine Learning course, you will gain a foundational understanding of artificial intelligence and machine learning. The Data Science course involves analyzing data with SQL, Python, and data visualization tools, as well as creating a chatbot with Python. Each course introduces core concepts of UX and UI design, programming, and graphic design. In addition to developing your technical skills, you’ll have the chance to hear from and connect with women in tech through speaker sessions.

 

Subject Areas: Aerodynamics, aerospace engineering, propulsion, and mechanics.

Location: Virtual via edX

Cost: The course is available for free without a certificate, or for $139 if you would like to receive a certificate upon completion. Financial aid options are also available.

Application Deadline: Enrollment for this course is offered on a rolling basis.

Dates: The course is self-paced, spanning 7 weeks, with an expected commitment of 10–12 hours per week.

Eligibility: High school students with a background in mathematics and physics are eligible to apply.

 

Delft University of Technology's Introduction to Aeronautical Engineering course offers high school students an in-depth overview of the fundamentals of aeronautics. It covers the evolution of flight, from early ballooning to modern aircraft, while exploring core concepts like stability, navigation, propulsion, and aerodynamics.

In this course, you will examine the mechanics of flight, such as how airfoils and wings generate lift and the optimal flying conditions for different phases of flight. With a practical focus, this course is designed for learners with a basic understanding of math and physics, providing a solid foundation in aerospace engineering. Additionally, you will explore the influence of flight history on modern aircraft and learn how modeling the Earth's atmosphere plays a crucial role in aircraft design.